Dr. Steve Parish
General Knowledge, Conditions and Infectious Diseases of Camelids and Small Ruminants

• General Taxonomy
• Nomenclature of Various Age Groups
• Vital Parameters
• Llama verse Ruminants
• Nutritional Requirements
• Vaccination Programs
• Production Cycle and Common Clinical Problems
• Newborn Cria to weaning
• Clostridial diseases
• Parasitic diseases
• Weanlings
• Adults
• Digestive Tract Diseases
• Respiratory Tract Diseases
• Llama immunodeficiency syndrome
• Skin Diseases
• Nervous system
• Musculoskeletal

South American Camelids 

General Taxonomy

Class – MAMMALIA

    Order –ARTIODACTYIA (even-toed hoofed animals)

        Suborder –SUIFORMES (hippos, swine, peccaries)
        Suborder –RUMINANTIA (Cattle, sheep, goats, deer, giraffe)
        Suborder - TYLOPODA (Camelids)

            Old World genus and species
                Camelus dromedarius
                C. bactrianus

            New World genus and species
                Llama glama – Llama
                L. pacos – Alpaca
                L. guanicoe – Guanaco
                Vicugna vicugna – Vicuna
                V. vicugna mensalis (Peruvian
                V. vicugna vicugna (Argentine)

The Llama genera are also called the South American Camelids. Vicuna’s are placed in a separate genera based on having open-rooted incisors.

All four species of Llamas are indigenous to the South American high plains and the Andes Mountains. All but the guanaco have been domesticated and used for food, fiber and as a beast of burden.

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Nomenclature of Various Age Groups

Adults
“Males” for intact males
“Females” for females

Neonate (“Cria”)
Young llamas from birth to weanling (4-6 months)

Juvenile
Weanling to adult

Castrated males
“Gelding”

A group is called a herd or flock, the former is the most common. Old World camels are referred to as bulls and cows and their offspring are called calves.

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Llama verse Ruminants

Evolution 
Evolutionary pathways diverged 40 million years ago

Blood
Llamas have small elliptical RBC’s compared to the larger, round RBC’s in ruminants. The predominant WBC is the neutrophil in llamas whereas the lymphocyte is predominant in ruminants

Foot
The foot of llamas is characterized by toenails and a soft pad. Both P3 and P2 are horizontal.

Digestive system
While both groups are ‘anterior fermenting’, they differ greatly in evolutionary development of the fermenting structures in anatomy, motility and dentition. Ruminants have four compartments (rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum) whereas llamas have three, including C1, C2 and C3.

Respiratory system
Llamas have a long soft palate and therefore have difficulty breathing through their mouths while this is not the case in ruminants

Urinary system
Kidney is smooth and elliptical in llamas (similar to sheep, but not lobed like cattle)

Parasites
Certain parasites are unique to llamas, such as lice and coccidia, however they do share some gastrointestinal nematodes with ruminants. Llamas are susceptible to nose bots from both sheep and deer.

Infectious diseases
Llamas are very hardy and infectious diseases appear to be less common than is seen with the ruminants. There are some cross species infectious conditions that occur such as Brucellosis, Bluetongue, Equine Herpes One, Contagious ecthyma and BVD.

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Nutritional Requirements

The nutrient requirements of llamas and alpacas have not been determined as specifically as in most other livestock species. In general, their requirements are considered the most similar to sheep nutritional requirements. Llamas and alpacas are very adaptable to many dietary situations in North America as they are in their homelands of South America. In general they will consume anywhere from 1.8-2.0% of their body weight as dry matter. Therefore within these bounds one must supply all of the nutrient needs of the animal regardless of the type of production the animal is involved in (i.e. pregnancy, lactation, growth or maintenance). This means a 300-lb. animal will consume 6.7 pounds of 90% dry matter feed. Maintenance requirements for crude protein will range between 8 and 16% depending again on production. Alpacas tend to have slightly higher protein requirements than llamas due to higher requirements for fleece production. Llamas and alpacas require anywhere from 1.5 to 2.5 times maintenance requirements for late pregnancy, lactation and heavy work. Again within the bounds of 1.8-2.0% of body weight, we must supply these requirements. 

It is important in our practice in that we work with our clients to make sure that they know what they are feeding to their animals. Our clients routinely have their feeds (grass and alfalfa hay) analyzed so we can make recommendations as to proper feeding. Frequently in our area our base feed is native grass hay. Frequently, an analysis reveals that the crude protein content of these hays is 7-8%. Obviously if this hay alone is fed to animals other than those requiring maintenance levels, we are underfeeding protein/energy and clinical problems can develop. These rations are either supplemented with a specific llama grain/pellet or with alfalfa hay. Llamas/Alpacas fed solely alfalfa hay tend to readily become over fat.

Water consumption per animal will average 1 gallon per 100 lb. body weight. Fresh water is always required, since these animals are very finicky about clean water.

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Vaccination Programs

As with other large animal species, vaccination programs are variable and based on many factors involving the group of animals i.e. use, closed herd or not, historical and current diseases, and area diseases. Remember that there are no licensed products for use in llamas and alpacas in the United States. Vaccination programs should be established and current prior to the expected onset of possible clinical problems. An example of this would include establishing immunity in a pregnant female in order to provide protection through passive transfer.

Most people consider a basic program should include at minimum protection against the Clostridial diseases. For some this means a ‘7-way plus Tetanus’ and for others it will mean CD/T. Beyond this basis, vaccinations sometimes are given for sound reasons that can include: Equine herpes 1, Leptospirosis, Bovine Virus Diarrhea, IBR and E. coli. Use of these vaccines should be based on sound evidence of need and with care when it comes to selection of the product. It is not advisable to use a MLV vaccine designed for one species in another. Therefore, one should only used killed or temperature sensitive mutant viral products in llamas and alpacas.

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Production Cycle and Common Clinical Problems:

Reproduction

Puberty

Gestation period – 11 months

Unsuccessful pregnancy

Abortion diseases

1.Spontaneous abortion

2. Equine herpes 1

• An respiratory, neurologic and abortion disease of horses
• Transmission probably comes from horses initially.
• Camelids are fully susceptible to these same outcomes 
• Abortion usually occurs in mid-gestation
• Vaccination is sometimes used to control this disease

3. Leptospirosis

• Camelids are fully susceptible to these agents as are ruminants
• The organism may be found in the environment and is spread by the contamination of feed and water sources.
• Abortion usually occurs in mid-gestation.
• Vaccines designed for cattle are used in camelids
  

4. Other abortion diseases include Brucellosis and Pine Needle Abortion

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Newborn Cria to weaning

Birth process

Passive transfer of immunoglobulins

• Failure to achieve successful passive transfer creates an increased risk for infectious diseases in crias.
• The most common of these is gram-negative septicemia’s 
• These can lead to sudden death, or localization in the joints (joint ill), meninges (meningitis) or the eye. 
• Insuring passive transfer is one of the most important things one can do for a newborn.
• Successful passive transfer does not mean that disease cannot occur, but the risk is much lower.
  

Congenital/Genetic diseases

• Many congenital defects, often fatal are seen in crias

Starvation

• A common cause of debility and death in young crias
• Mothers may not have enough milk or the cria may not be suckling properly

Vitamin D deficiency

• A common problem in crias in the Pacific Northwest when they are born in the winter months.
• Vitamin D stores are low due to decreased sunlight.
• Young rapidly growing animals are at greatest risk.
• The disease is characterized by metabolic bone disease i.e. Ricketts (hypophosphotemic ricketts)
• Breeding for births in the spring and summer or supplying added vitamin D to fall and winter born crias attains prevention.

Selenium and Vitamin E

• Crias are fully susceptible to white muscle disease, disease characterized by sudden breakdown of skeletal and/or cardiac muscle.
• Deficiencies are also common causes of ill-thrift and increased risk for infectious disease.

Diarrhea

• Crias are susceptible to many agents that can lead to diarrhea.
• Common agents are similar to those seen in calves, lambs and kids
      E.coli
      Salmonella
      Rota virus
      Corona virus
      Parvovirus
      Coccidia
      Giardia
• The physiologic effects of these agents are typical including:
      Dehydration
      Electrolyte changes
      Acidosis
      Energy deficits
• The basis of therapy is typical
      Correction of dehydration – oral or IV
      Correction of acid/base and electrolyte changes
      Provisions for energy needs.
• These diseases are prevented through good management and sanitation; as there are no approved anti-diarrheal vaccines for use in camelids although the calf E. coli vaccines may show some benefit.

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Clostridial diseases

The two major Clostridial diseases are tetanus and enterotoxemia. (Clostridial myonecrosis discussed below)

Tetanus

• Tetanus is caused by Cl. tetani
• The organism is common in the environment of animals
• All ages are susceptible
• Exposure comes through contamination of wounds, such as castration sites.
• Disease signs are caused by several potent neurotoxins produced by the organism.
• Treatment is difficult and fatality is common.
• Prevention is accomplished by the use of vaccines. 
• Young crias can be protected via colostrum using maternal vaccines followed by vaccination as they mature.

Enterotoxemia: Synonymous with Overeating disease

• This is a highly fatal disease related to the proliferation of the organism in the intestine of susceptible animals.
• All ages are susceptible.
• Affected animals are usually in good nutritional condition and have access to concentrate diets or lush pasture.
• Toxins produced by the proliferating organisms lead to tissue necrosis and systemic toxemia. 
• Once clinical disease is present, death usually occurs.
• Specific antitoxins are available for treatment, however even when used the disease is rarely reversed.
• Vaccinations are available (frequently combined with Tetanus) and are used for primary vaccination and for material/colostral protection.

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Parasitic diseases
All ages of camelids are susceptible to parasitic diseases

Young animals frequently suffer the most severe affects of parasite infections, although adults certainly can become debilitated.

Parasites include: 

• Stomach and intestinal worms
• Liver flukes
• Nose bots
• Meningeal worm

Standard and routine deworming programs are a part of a good herd health program.

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Weanlings

Nutrition
Adequate nutrition encompassing adequate protein and energy is necessary for proper development,
Excessive nutrition can lead to metabolic conditions such as bone disease

Castration
Usually performed in the first year of life.
Castration delays growth plate closure in the long bones leading to a taller animal when castrated before maturity

Adults

Protein/Energy requirements

Maintenance

Pregnancy

Lactation

Body condition scoring

• Not limited to adults
• BCS allows one to assess the nutritional status of an animal in response to its diet.
• Increasing, decreasing or providing maintenance needs from a diet is easily done when one knows the BCS

Diseases

Digestive

When the following diseases occur, rarely are they specifically related to a specific disease agent. Often they are multifactorial and can include infectious agents.

Colic

• Represents abdominal pain
• The source can be the digestive tract or other abdominal organ system, i.e. Urinary system
• Intestinal impactions, ulcers, uterine torsion and intestinal accidents are the most common causes of abdominal pain.
• Some respond to medical therapy, whereas others require surgical intervention.

Diarrhea

• Infectious diarrheas are rare except for salmonellosis
• Parasitic causes of diarrhea include intestinal worms and liver flukes

Ulcers

• Ulcers occur in ‘stressed’ llamas.
• Suspect the possibility of ulcers in any animal under stressful conditions, i.e. Other disease processes and fractures

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Respiratory

Virus/Bacteria

• These diseases are more common in maturing animals but can affect all ages.
• Diseases that are seen to affect the respiratory system include:

  Streptococcal infections including S. equisemilis which most likely initially comes from horses. Respiratory disease and peritonitis are common sequels to this agent

  Equine herpes 1

LLlama immunodeficiency syndrome

• A genetic disease leading to defective function of the immune system of llamas
• Animals from weanlings to young adults are most commonly affected.
• Low immunoglobulin levels lead to increased risk for infectious diseases, particularly involving the respiratory and nervous system.
• The disease is always fatal.

Skin

Parasites

• Lice – Sucking and biting
• Mange - Sarcoptic

Bacterial infections

• Dermatophilus (Rain scald)

Fungal infection

• Ringworm occurs in camelids

Nutritional deficiencies

• Zinc deficiency leads to a thickening of the skin on the legs. Most likely the animal has a malabsorption for zinc, since other animals in the herd usually do not show problems

Nervous system

Ear infections

• The same agents associated with respiratory disease (viruses and bacteria) can ascend to the middle ear and cause vestibular disease.
• Infections readily penetrate into the brain stem.

Meningeal worms

• Not found west of the Mississippi River.
• Carried by white tail deer and having a specific snail as the intermediate host.
• The disease is characterized by spinal paralysis.
• Some respond to treatment with Ivomectin

Other conditions such as brain and spinal abscesses, rabies and listeriosis are documented in llamas.

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Musculoskeletal

Clostridial myonecrosis

• Camelids are fully susceptible to the Clostridial agents that cause muscle disease in ruminants.
• These diseases consist of ‘Blackleg’ and Malignant Edema’ among others in the complex.
• These diseases are rapidly fatal and often relate to a wound or bruise allowing the agent to become established.
• The course of the disease is very rapid and is characterized by swelling at the infection site, pain, lameness, rapid debilitation and death.
• Vaccination is preventative in most cases.

Injuries

• Traumatic injuries (fractures and ruptured muscles) do occur as accidents.
• Angular limb deformity
• Often related to trauma, nutrition and vitamin D deficiency
• Surgery is often necessary to correct ‘crooked legs’.

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Last Edit February 10, 2000