Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus in Camelids
January 2006
The following tests are recommended by the Washington Animal
Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (WADDL) and Washington State
University Veterinary Teaching Hospital (WSU-VTH) for testing
alpacas and llamas. These are based on the most current
information available and may change as research is completed.
Herds should be examined on a case-by-case basis as testing may
not be warranted in some situations.
1. Herd Screening
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Submit whole blood samples (purple top tube, (PTT) (whole blood in
EDTA), and red top tube, (RTT) (serum) individually marked to WADDL.
WADDL will test PTT sample for BVDV by PCR. Up to 10 samples can be
pooled and tested, which may reduce testing costs. Individual samples from
positive pools would be retested to identify individual positive animals
within the pool.
- Negative results (BVDV not detected) = no BVD infection
- Positive results (BVDV detected) = persistent OR transient BVD
infection suspected
Definitive diagnosis of persistent infection requires submission of
another blood sample (PTT) from an individual positive sample to be
collected in 3-4 weeks and re-tested.
Serum samples (RTT) can be used to check for BVDV antibody to determine
prior exposure through serologic testing.
If unable to test entire herd, test all juveniles less than 2 years old
and breeding males and females. Again diagnosis of BVDV persistent infection
would require 2 blood samples collected 3-4 weeks apart.
2. New Arrivals to a Herd
Quarantine for minimum of 30 days. Quarantining is not only important to
allow screening for BVDV but also for other diseases. Herd biosecurity is
important to protect your herd from diseases new animals may bring with
them. For animals that will be remaining on your property a minimum 30-day
quarantine is recommended before introducing new animals to your herd.
- Negative results (BVDV not detected) = no BVD infection
- Positive results (BVDV detected) = persistent OR transient BVD
infection suspected
Remain in quarantine until retested in 3-4 weeks
Negative re-test = most likely a transient infection
Positive re-test = persistent infection suspected
A negative-tested dam can be returned to the herd, but recommend
quarantining just before delivery until newborn cria is tested with PCR and
identified as BVD infected or not.
3. Other Recommended Tests
Necropsy and submit fixed and fresh tissues to test all aborted and
stillborn crias and crias or adults with unexplained deaths. Submit whole
blood (PTT) and serum (RTT) from the respective dam as well.
In addition to performing an abortion screen it is a good opportunity to
evaluate the herd’s trace mineral status.
Additional Information
1. What is BVDV?
Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus (BVDV) is one of several world-wide
pestiviruses known to infect domestic and wild ruminants, camelids, and
swine. For cattle producers the virus causes economic losses through
decreased weight gains, decreased milk production, reproductive losses, and
death. As with most viral infections, there is a wide range of clinical
signs from inapparent infections to diarrhea, respiratory tract infections,
hemorrhage, abortions, congenital defects, and death.
Acute Infection
Bovine viral diarrhea refers to a mild disease caused by a BVD virus
infection in immunocompetent cattle. In general, animals develop acute BVD
10-12 days after infection. Since BVDV infects white blood cells, whole
blood (buffy coat) is the sample of choice for isolation of BVDV from
clinically ill animals.
Persistent Infection
BVDV can lead to a persistent infection in a calf if it is infected during a
certain time in gestation. If infected prior to complete development of the
fetal immune system, the virus will not be recognized as a foreign pathogen.
After birth, the calf will shed the virus and infect other animals in the
herd. Sometimes these calves look sick but they can also look perfectly
healthy thereby making it impossible to visually identify these animals.
2. Why is BVDV important to my alpacas or llamas?
This question cannot be completely answered at this time. There is much
research that needs to be performed to fully understand the implications of
BVDV in alpacas and llamas.
Research has shown that llamas and alpacas can be infected with the virus
and develop clinical signs. There have also been reports of suspected
persistent infections in crias. In cattle, persistent infected calves are
the primary source of spreading the infection to other animals. It is not
known if persistently infected crias are the primary source of herd
infection in camelids, but it is suspected. Alpacas and llamas are sent all
over North America and lapses in biosecurity could permit a persistent
infected cria to infect other animals and herds.
3. What are some concerns among veterinarians and researchers regarding
BVDV in alpacas and llamas?
A few current questions among veterinarians and scientists requiring
investigation: Are there true persistent infections or longer transient
infections than seen in cattle? How accurately do the bovine-based tests
diagnose infections in camelids? Is there a new pestivirus specific to
camelids or a mutation of the BVD virus that appears to “prefer” camelids?
4. What are some possible clinical signs seen in alpacas and llamas?
Typical signs that a client may see include fever, oral ulcers, anorexia,
diarrhea, abortion, ill-thrift, and congenital defects.
5. How is BVDV transmitted?
The most efficient method of BVDV transmission in camelids is not known.
Transmission in cattle has been primarily by ingestion or inhalation of the
virus. The virus can be found in all body fluids (respiratory and oral
secretions, urine, milk, and semen) and feces. Transplacental (cow to fetus)
transmission also occurs. Transmission is assumed to be similar in other
susceptible species including alpacas and llamas.
6. What species can transmit BVDV?
Virus can potentially spread between domestic ruminants (cattle, sheep,
goats), camelids, and wildlife (deer, elk, etc).
7. Is there a vaccine available for alpacas and llamas?
Currently there is no BVDV vaccine licensed for use in camelids. There
are several vaccines available for use in cattle. The vaccines do not
prevent infection but reduce the clinical disease effects. At this time, it
is not recommended to vaccinate camelids until more is understood about the
virus. Unwarranted vaccination can interfere with diagnostic testing and
identifying truly infected animals.
8. Can BVDV infections be prevented?
No, BVDV infections cannot be prevented but they can be reduced.
Maintaining a closed herd, implementing strict biosecurity protocols for all
incoming animals (recommended not just for reducing BVDV infections), and
periodic screening of open herds can reduce the occurrence.
9. What diagnostic techniques are currently recommended for alpacas and
llamas?
Types of Tests Available
- Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) – nucleic acid detection, very
sensitive. Will detect persistent as well as acute (transient)
infections. Diagnostic method of choice because of excellent
sensitivity.
- Antigen-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Ag-ELISA) – antigen
detection; validation of this test has not been established in camelids
but is being evaluated.
- Serology (serum neutralization) – antibody detection, a single test
indicates exposure, but not active infection. Testing acute and
convelescent samples and showing a 4-fold increase in titer indicates
active infection. False negatives may occur if sample taken soon after
an infection (prior to development of an immune response), or in animals
< 3 months of age when maternal, colostrum derived, antibodies interfere
with the test.
- Skin biopsy with immunohistochemistry (IHC) – antigen detection;
results are not conclusive in camelids.
- Virus isolation – Detects live virus in blood and tissues. May be
required for virus typing.
Testing Strategies:
Acute Infection:
BVDV acute infection can be diagnosed by virus isolation, polymerase
chain reaction (PCR) or serology. Virus detection must be done in the first
3-10 days after infection. A whole blood sample is the best sample for BVDV
detection by PCR or virus isolation. Paired acute and convalescent samples
collected 3-4 weeks apart are required to identify four fold increase in
serum antibody titers following recovery from clinical illness.
Persistent Infection:
Definitive diagnosis of persistent infection in camelids cannot be
based upon testing done at a single time point. Detection of BVDV persistent
infection requires showing virus is present in a particular animal over time
(the infection persists). Although the BVDV antigen ELISA test done at a
single time point is used to detect BVDV persistent infection in cattle,
whether or not similar interpretation of the test in camelids is accurate is
not known. Therefore, persistent infections in camelids should be determined
by detecting virus (by PCR or virus isolation) in sequential samples
collected 3-4 weeks apart.
Who to contact for more information?
Contact WADDL (509)335-9696 for testing questions.
WADDL and WSU-VTH veterinarians who can assist you:
Additional Information on Camelids
References:
- Goyal SM, Ridpath JF. Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus: Diagnosis,
Management, and Control. Ames, IA: Blackwell Publishing; 2005.
- Belknap EB, Collins JK, Larsen RS, Conrad KP. Bovine viral diarrhea
virus in New World camelids. J Vet Diagn Invest. 2000;12:568-570.
- Mattson DE. Diagnostic tests and procedures for alpacas persistently
infected with bovine viral diarrhea virus.
http://www.alpacaresearchfoundation.org/papers_reports/bvdv_census.html
- Carman S, Carr N et al. BVD in alpaca: abortion and PI. J Vet Diag
Invest 17:589-593, 2005.
- Evermann JF. Pestiviral infections of llamas and alpacas. Small
Ruminant Res 61:201-206, 2006.
- Grooms D, Baker JC, Ames TR. Diseases caused by bovine viral
diarrhea virus. In Smith BP, ed. Large Animal Internal Medicine. St.
Louis: Mosby; 2002:707-714.
